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STEP2SOLUTIONS
►Upon completion of this chapter, you will be = able to perform the following tasks:
►  Ide= ntify the IP protocol stack, its protocol layer functions, and commonly used IP protocols.
►  Ide= ntify IP address classes, IP addresses, IP subnet masks, IP network numbers, subnet numbers, and possible host      &= nbsp; numbers.
►  Con= figure IP addresses and subnet masks on a router = interface and optionally configure a host table.
►  Interconnect the VLANs with a Layer 3 device such as a router on a stick.
•
Objectives
Purpose: This figure states the chapter objectives.
Emphasize: Read or state each objective so each student has a clear understanding of= the chapter objectives.
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STEP2SOLUTIONS
►Early protocol suite
►Universal
Introduction to TCP/IP
Host
Internet
TCP/IP
Host
Purpose: This figure explains the history of TCP/IP.
Emphasize: In the mid-1970s, DARPA established a packet-switched network to provide electronic communication among research institutions in the United States. DARPA and other government organizations understood the potential of packet-switched technology and were just beginning to face the problem virtually all companies with networks now have—how to establish communication between dissimilar computer systems.

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STEP2SOLUTIONS
TCP/IP Protocol Stack
7
6
5
4
3
2
5
4
3
2
Application <= /div>
Presentation <= /div>
Session
Transport
Network
Data-Link
Physical
1
Application <= /div>
Transport
Internet
Network access
Purpose: This figure shows the protocol layers and compares them with the layers of the OSI reference model.
Emphasize: This figure shows the TCP/IP conceptual layer titles. The protocol stack = is used several times in this chapter, and the lower two layers may be somet= imes called the network interface layer.
The terms “packet” and “datagram” are nearly interchangeable. However, a datagram is a unit of data, while a packet is= a physical entity that appears on a network. In most cases, a packet contai= ns a datagram. In some protocols, however, a datagram is divided into a number= of packets to accommodate a requirement for smaller, transmittable pieces.
Note: Creation and documentation of the Internet protocols closely resembles an academic research project. The protocols are specified in documents called RFCs. RFCs are published, reviewed, and analyzed by the Internet communit= y.

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STEP2SOLUTIONS
Application Layer Overview
*Used by the Router
Application
Transport<= /span>
Internet
Data-Link<= /span>
Physical
File Transfer
- TFTP*
- FTP*
- NFS
E-Mail
- SMTP
Remote Login
- Telnet*
- rlogin*
Network Management
- SNMP*
Name Management
-= DNS*
Purpose: This figure discusses application-layer protocols.
Emphasize: The common network applications today include file transfer, remote login, network management, and e-mail.
We focus on TCP/IP in this course for several reasons:
TCP/IP is a universally available protocol and you will use it at work.
TCP/IP is a useful reference for understanding other protocols, because it inclu= des elements that are representative of other protocols.
TCP/IP is important because the router uses it as a configuration tool. The rout= er uses Telnet for remote configuration, TFTP to transfer configuration files and operating system images, and SNMP for network management.
Transition: The next section moves down the model to discuss the transport layer.

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STEP2SOLUTIONS
Transport Layer Overview
Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)
User Datagram
Protocol (UDP)
Application
Transport<= /span>
Internet
Network Access=
Connection-Oriented

Connectionless=
Purpose: This figure introduces the protocols used at the transport layer.
Emphasize: TCP is one protocol within the protocol suite of TCP/IP. TCP is an acknowledged transport-layer protocol. However, TCP has a large header so there is much overhead.
UDP is unacknowledged. By eliminating all of the acknowledgement mechanisms, UDP= is fast and efficient. UDP does not divide application data into pieces. Reliability is assumed to be handled by the upper-layer protocols, by a reliable lower-layer protocol, or by an error-tolerant application. UDP d= oes have a smaller header and less overhead.


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STEP2SOLUTIONS
TCP Segment Format
Source Port (16)
Destination Port (16)
Sequence Number (32)
= Header
Length (4)=
Acknowledgment Number (32)
Reserved (6)
Code Bits (6)
Window (16)
Checksum (16)
Urgent (16)
Options (0 or 32 if Any)
Data (Varies)
= 20
Bytes
Bit 0
Bit 15
Bit 16
Bit 31
Purpose: This figure explains what is contained in a TCP segment.
Emphasize: Source Port and Destination Port are the connections to the upper-layer protocol.
Sequence and Acknowledgment numbers are the position in the user’s byte stre= am of this segment. Sequence numbers are used for establishing reliability.<= /font>
HLEN is the header length. It tells us where the data begins.
Six bits are reserved for future use.
Code Bits distinguish session management messages from data.
Window is a term we will come back to in a few slides. For now, consider it to be the size of the receiver’s buffers.
Checksum is a cyclic redundancy check (CRC). It verifies that the datagram arrived intact.
Urgent Pointer is used to signify out-of-band data.
Options are used by vendors to enhance their protocol offering.
The data portion of the frame contains the upper-layer protocol data.
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STEP2SOLUTIONS
Port Numbers
TCP
Port
Nu= mbers
F
T<= br> P<= /b>
Transport
La= yer
T
E<= br> L<= br> N<= br> E<= br> T<= /b>
D
N<= br> S<= /b>
S
N<= br> M<= br> P<= /b>
T
F<= br> T<= br> P<= /b>
S
M<= br> T<= br> P<= /b>
UDP
= Application
La= yer
21<= /div>
23<= /div>
25<= /div>
53<= /div>
69<= /div>
161=
R
I<= br> P<= /b>
520=
Purpose: This figure explains how TCP uses port numbers to connect applications.
Emphasize: These port numbers were standardized in RFC 1340. This RFC has been obsol= eted by RFC 1700. However, many of the port numbers outlined in RFC 1340 are s= till being used as standards.
It is possible to filter on TCP port numbers.
The TCP port number, combined with other information, is what UNIX C language developers call a socket. However, work sockets have different meanings in XNS and Novell, where they are service access point abstractions or programming interfaces rather than service access point identifiers.

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STEP2SOLUTIONS
TCP Port Numbers
Source
Port
Destination= 3;
Port
…
Host A
1028
23<= /div>
…
SP<= /div>
DP<= /div>
Host Z
Telnet Z
Destination po= rt =3D 23.
Send packet to my
Telnet
application.
Purpose: This figure continues to explain how TCP uses port numbers.
Emphasize: In most cases, the TCP port number on one side of a conversation is the s= ame on the other side. For example, when a file transfer takes place, the software on one host is communicating with a peer application on another host.
In this example we see a Telnet (TCP port 23) session. It is possible to have multiple Telnet sessions running simultaneously on a host or router. Teln= et selects an unused port number above 1023 to represent the source port for each independent session. Notice that the destination port is still 23.
Port numbering is important to understand in order to configure IP extended ac= cess lists. The lack of symmetry in port number use is a critical factor in establishing effective security.

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STEP2SOLUTIONS
Send SYN
(seq =3D 100 ctl =3D SYN)
SYN Received
Send SYN, ACK
(seq =3D 300 ack =3D 101
ctl =3D syn,ack)
Established
(seq =3D 101 ack =3D 301
ctl =3D ack)
Host A
Host B
1
2
3
SYN Received
TCP Three-Way = Handshake/Open Connection
Layer 3 of 3
Emphasize: In the next segment, host A sends some data.  Note that the sequence number of= the segment in step 3 is the same as as the ACK in Step 2.
This sequence is like two people talking. The first person wants to talk to the second, and says, “I would like to talk with you.” (SYN) The second person responds, “Good. I want to talk with you.” (SYN, ACK) The first person then says, “Fine—let us talk. Here is w= hat I have to say.” (SYN, ACK, DATA)
At this point, either side can begin communicating and either side can break the connection. TCP is a peer-to-peer (balanced) communication method (no primary/secondary).
Note: This figure explains TCP connection establishment. For more information regarding the three-way handshake in establishing a TCP connection, refer= to RFC 793.

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►Window Size =3D 1
 Sender
 Receiver
Send 1
Receive 1
Receive ACK 2
Send ACK 2
Send 2
Receive 2
Receive ACK 3
Send ACK 3
Send 3
Receive 3
Receive ACK 4
Send ACK 4
TCP Simple Acknowledgment
Layer 1 of 7
Emphasize: ACK for message 3. (Send ACK 4, Receive ACK 4)
This sequence helps to convey the delay associated with a window size of one.<= /font>
Note: TCP acknowledgments are expectational and are sometimes called forward referenced, which means that they refer to the segment they are expecting= to receive, not the one just sent.
Acknowledgment field sizes can become an issue when transmitting data at FDDI and ATM speeds.
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STEP2SOLUTIONS